tested their relative technological, military and, by extension, political-economic superiority. The more ambitious and complex nature of modern space exploration, along with greater financial and fiscal accountability (Chapman, 2015), had combined to present a far different landscape of the space sector from that seen by observers in the heady days of the 1950s and 1960s when the U.S. and China, plans for a return to the Moon, the planned establishment of a sustained presence on Mars, the emergence of China as a significant player in space exploration, and the entry of Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) and Blue Origin as aerospace manufacturers and providers of space transportation are just some of the recent initiatives in what appears to be a rejuvenation of interest and relevance of space exploration. The emergence of the Australian Space Agency, recent missions to Mars by the U.S. ![]() As of 2018, 72 different government space agencies exist across the globe, 14 of which have launch capabilities. Space-related activities and ambitions have been revived recently, both with public and (increasingly) private entities employing varying levels of cooperation and introducing financial considerations to a sector that has traditionally focussed on nonfinancial objectives. In contrast, unmanned interplanetary probes have visited all of the planets in the Solar System. and the Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.), has been confined primarily to programs and missions such as Skylab, the Space Shuttle, Salyut, Soyuz, Mir, and the International Space Station that have focussed on activities undertaken in low Earth orbit. Instead, human space exploration since the end of the “Space Race” between the U.S. Over the next six months, that plan was rejected by the Nixon administration (Logsdon, 2015). post-Apollo space program a bold plan of continued lunar and Martian exploration. ![]() Just over two weeks later, on 4th August, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) presented to a committee charged with making recommendations on the U.S. That vision was achieved on 20th July 1969, when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin took the first steps on the Moon. Kennedy articulated his vision that the United States (U.S.) should “…commit itself to achieve the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth”. Basil Tucker, University of South Australia, and Hank Alewine, the University of Alabama in Huntsville
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